Jim Crow Laws Main Problems for Black Americans in the 1920s and 1930s Essay

When the Civil War ended in 1865, Abraham Lincoln proclaimed all men in America – black or white – equal. However, throughout the rest of the nineteenth and much of the twentieth century African-Americans were widely discriminated especially in the Southern states of the country. They faced serious social, economic and political problems and were regarded by most people as the inferior race. Although America was referred to by its president Woodrow Wilson as the â€Å"great melting pot† in 1915 and although it was supposed to be a country where â€Å"all men are created equal† as stated in the Constitution; this certainly was not the case. American society was divided by strict racial hierarchy with the White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASP) on the very top, other European immigrants in the middle and with blacks descending mainly from slaves on the very bottom. Historians argue why this was and why the desires of some leaders to create a homologous nation really stayed only desires. Some argue that the ethnic minorities faced discrimination in everyday life because it had legal basis in the so called â€Å"Jim Crow† laws, which promoted the â€Å"separate but equal† decision of the Supreme Court from 1896. These laws were introduced in the South to support the separation of the races and basically made the discrimination of Blacks legal. However, others argue that the reason for discrimination lay deeper in the American history and that it rooted from the established racial hierarchy. There were many half-secret organisations that fought for the white supremacy and some historians, such as David M. Chalmers argue that it was the existences of such groups that caused the discrimination against blacks. Some historians also argue that the federal apathy was another important obstacle blacks had to face. This was because of the laissez-faire policy and also because of personal racist views held by the presidents of the era, who wanted (as the rest of American people) to keep power in the hands of the WASP establishment. Some other historians would argue that it was the impact of World War One that deepened the racial problems and others believe that blacks had to deal with discrimination because of the fear of the whites that their social and economic status were under threat. This essay will examine all those possible reasons why black people were treated with hostility in the interwar period and will prove that while the Jim Crow laws were important in justifying this approach; it was in fact the deep-rooted racism that caused all the other factors and led to the savage discrimination of African-Americans. Some historians, such as John A. Kerr argue that the Jim Crow laws were the main cause of the discrimination present in American states. The decision of the Supreme Court in 1896 led to proliferation of these laws throughout the South as Homer Plessy lost his case and the Court found that the laws were not breaking the US Constitution. The Court decided to support the popular â€Å"Separate but Equal† policy, which meant that as long as equal facilities were provided, the segregation of the races wasn? unconstitutional. Seven of the eight justices at the trial favoured this decision and stated that the 14th Amendment to the US constitution was not â€Å"intended to abolish distinctions based upon colour† and that separation of those does not â€Å"necessarily imply the inferiority of either race to the other. † This decision disappointed black people as they knew that it was very unlikely that the states would provide them with equal facilities. As a result of this case states could impose legal punishments on people consorting with members of another race. The most common examples of Jim Crow laws were forbidding intermarriage and ordering business owners and public institutions (schools, offices) to keep their black and white clientele separate. Basically, the discrimination of black Americans was now legal. The only justice that didn? t agree with the court? s decision, John Harlan, summarised it well stating â€Å"the present decision†¦ ill not only stimulate aggressions, more or less brutal and irritating, upon the admitted rights of coloured citizens, but will encourage the belief that it is possible, by means of state enactments, to defeat the beneficial purposes which the people of the United States had in view when they adopted the recent (13th and 14th) amendments of the Constitution. † In addition, even though black people possessed the right to vote, by the year 1902 there was only 3,000 black voters in Alabama as it was one of the states that created impossible qualification tests for black voters. In a state where African-American population was significant with around 900,000 individuals this isn? t surprising and only proves the extent of discrimination and racism present. These ridiculous tests, with questions such as â€Å"How many bubbles are in a bar of soap† denied blacks the opportunity to vote for their politicians and thus decreased the chances of a change of the situation. The Jim Crow laws were clearly a manifestation of the racism present within American culture, but they alone weren? t the reason for the hostility and discrimination towards the blacks. The factor that caused the laws to come into existence and be accepted and followed was the deep-rooted racism and the presumed dominance of the WASPs and this was the main problem African-Americans had to deal with. Many historians would thus argue that the main reason why ethnic minorities and blacks in particular, faced discrimination was the existence of racial hierarchy and deep-rooted racism inherent within the American WASP culture. After the 13th Amendment in 1865 that freed the former black slaves and the 14th and 15th Amendments that provided them with equal rights and suffrage, African-American hoped for a new better beginning. However, the former slave-owners and other WASPs living especially in the south were not willing to undergo such change. The problem wasn? t only with blacks, other ethnic groups different from the white â€Å"acceptable† Americans of northern European origin suffered from discrimination and perceived inferiority as well. Americans wanted to keep their standard of WASP Americanism and were unwilling to accept other cultures as equal. There were many pseudo-scientific findings that were meant to prove this inequality. Joseph Le Conte, an American anthropologist, for example claimed that â€Å"modern ethnologists have thoroughly established the fact that in all essential qualities the Negro race seems to be totally incapable of development†. Racial stereotypes of blacks as inferior beings were popular throughout American society and although the racial hierarchy was mostly unspoken, there were clear signs of it in every aspect of the culture. As the blacks were always regarded as inferior, low-class people, it was not easy for the white supremacy supporters to all of a sudden support their equality. Racism had a strong historical context in American society and it was this that caused the Jim Crow laws to be legalised and supremacist organisations, such as the Ku Klux Klan, to form. Therefore the deep-rooted racism must be seen as the key problem Blacks had to face as it caused all the other obstacles for them and resulted in discrimination in all levels of the society. However, some historians would argue that it was the existence of the supremacist organisations that posed the biggest trouble to the black Americans. Ku Klux Klan was formed immediately after the end of the Civil War but its main wave of actions happened during the 1920s and 30s. The founder of the second KKK, who awoke the old tradition in 1915, was William J. Simmons. His aim was to purge Southern culture of corrupting influences that were according to him trying to â€Å"destroy WASP America. † These were apparently not only blacks, but also other ethnic and religious groups, such as Catholics, Jews and even communists. The Klan used violent methods to intimidate and suppress these groups. Mob violence and lynching were a daily fact of life in the south during the 1920s. However, the organisation became gradually more national with members in the northern countries as well as in the southern ones. It restricted its membership to native-born white Protestants and it attracted many people due to blacks? migration and social fears resulting from it; many people across the country became committed to the â€Å"100% Americanism† and were afraid of losing the position on the top of the racial hierarchy. As historian Paul S. Boyer states, â€Å"The organisation consisted primarily of ordinary people, not criminals or fanatics. The Klan? s promise to restore the nation to an imagined purity – ethnical, moral and religious – appealed powerfully to ill-educated and deeply religious Americans. † By 1925 KKK had 5 million members and it dominated state legislatures. Assembly men, sheriffs, judges – all were members of the Klan and agreed with its policies, either secretly or publicly. The Klan used symbols, such as white robes and burning crosses to bring about and emphasise fear and as historian David M. Chalmers argues they were viewed as a â€Å"super-secret organisation; masked and mysterious, with a tradition of violence for which a generation of legend had achieved a high measure of social approval. † They were feared by the blacks and praised by the whites. Although the white supremacy organisations, such as the KKK played an important role in supporting racist actions and discrimination, they didn? t exist without a cause. This cause was the deep-rooted racism within American people as well as the social and economic fear after the â€Å"Great Migration† and the First World War. It is also surprising that such a violent organisation was free to carry out its actions and was not stopped by neither federal, nor state governments. This shows that the legal aspect of discrimination was to a great extent the major problem for the blacks. However, racism would have existed without the laws, but the laws would not have existed without the deep-rooted racism in American culture, which establishes it as the key reason for all the problems. In any other instance, organisations such as the KKK and racist laws such as the Jim Crow laws would not be accepted by any government. Thus, historians debate also the option that one of the biggest problems African Americans had to face during this time period was the federal government? s apathy. By the ruling of the Supreme Court in 1876 it has been decided that individual states could govern themselves as they saw fit. This led to proliferation of the Jim Crow laws in the South and increasing ignorance of the problem of discrimination in the North. What is more, it provided the federal government with an excuse to not intervene and carry out the ineffective laissez-faire policy. Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat president during and after the First World War, was even racist himself. He declared that the blacks were â€Å"an ignorant and inferior race† and strongly defended segregation stating in 1916 that it is â€Å"not humiliating and is a benefit to you Black gentlemen. † Even though he is known for his campaign for international brotherhood and peace and he denounced the tactics of the KKK, he openly sympathised with its efforts to restore the white supremacy. Clearly, the racism in America was deep-rooted in all levels of the society. In the 1920s Republicans held the presidential office in their hands and as part of their overall approach to ruling they applied the laissez-faire attitude towards social affairs. As Calvin Coolidge stated â€Å"the chief business of the American people is business†. They simply did not think it was their job to intervene in people? s everyday lives. Moreover, the various administrations seemed to close their eyes to racial discrimination. Anti-lynching law in 1921 was never passed as it was defeated by Southern Senators and that meant that the organisations such as the KKK could continue with their horrible actions. What is more, the Klan was allowed to organise 40,000 men march on Washington DC in 1925 showing its strength and being de facto supported by the federal government. Blacks were also further excluded from the Republican Party and had to submit to segregation in the White House and the federal civil service. The evidence shows that Blacks were discriminated in all levels of the society. Even the presidents themselves were racist and did nothing to tackle the inequalities, if not making them worse. The federal apathy clearly rooted from the racism present among the public and the government was simply responding to the will of the people. This created further complications for the African Americans to gain their civil rights as they had to face racism and discrimination not only at everyday levels but also at the proper political ones. Historians also debate the possibility that the aftermath of WW1 causing the â€Å"Great Migration† and wide spread social and economic fears was itself the reason for discrimination of black Americans. In the WW1, many African-Americans fought for the country, but even more of them were employed in munitions, other factories and agriculture to keep the country going. As a result, many blacks moved from the South to the North as they saw it as a chance for better life. Whites didn? t always welcome these migrants as they, too, had racism deep in their minds. Black migrants were also seen as an unwanted job competition – in 1917 in St. Louis 40 blacks and 9 whites were killed in race riot over employment. Although discrimination was nowhere near legal as it was in the South with the Jim Crow laws, whites in the North considered themselves superior as well and were ready to defend their position on the racial hierarchy. In Chicago, race riots began when a black boy accidentally swam to â€Å"white only† waters and the respectable white American citizens present on the beach stoned him to death. As Willoughby and Willoughby argue, â€Å"This incident clearly indicates the depth and extent of the hatred and prejudice. † And it indeed does. As shown above, the KKK had huge number of supporters and members in the North as well ever since its reformation and this meant that even the Northern WASPs were ready to discriminate. This leads back to the deep-rooted racism in the American culture and indicates it as the key problem. After the war ended, the closings of munitions factories hugely affected large proportion of the population. Blacks were then used as strike-breakers and were accused of lowering the wages as they were willing to work for less money. This, of course, created tensions and caused the â€Å"native† white Americans to feel their economic and social status being genuinely under threat. However, this attitude towards African-Americans was nothing new. On balance, there have been Klan members and other WASPs discriminating previous to the war, but the â€Å"Great Migration† caused by northern agents recruiting black workers in the South for munitions factories and other jobs, significantly increased the hostility towards blacks and heated the already existing racial tensions. It also gave further reasons to the â€Å"ordinary white workers† to support or join the Klan. Overall, there was no legal basis for discrimination in the north of the country, but the deep-rooted racism causing de facto segregation of the races provided strong enough reason for the racist Americans to discriminate. The black Americans faced serious problems of discrimination as they were regarded as members of the inferior race during the 19th and most of the 20th century. During the 1920s the tensions increased as the African Americans began to migrate within the US. Jim Crow laws made it legal to discriminate in the south as they sought segregation of the races and indirectly approved the white supremacy. This, alongside with federal government unwillingness to do anything about them, made it possible for racist organisations, such as the KKK, to exist and promote the WASP superiority through violence. However, the view that the KKK itself was the cause of racism is over simplistic misconception as it would not exist and be widely supported if the people would not agree with its goals. In addition, the impact of the First World War which meant increase in black migration to the North caused further deepening of racial problems there and was a factor in the increasing tensions. The problem black Americans faced was discrimination. This was possible to a great extent due to its de jure legalisation in the Jim Crow laws, but in actual fact the main problem blacks faced was the established racial hierarchy within the American society and the deep-rooted racism present in majority of the people. Simply, Blacks were denied to vote, federal government refused to do anything about their inadequate treatment and the Ku Klux Klan successfully managed to question their equality by themselves. However, all these actions taken by the WASPs to secure their position were but a manifestation of a wider racist attitude that was deep-rooted in the culture. In final conclusion, Jim Crow laws were a problem for the black Americans in the 1920s and 30s, but it was not the main one as they had to deal with the deep-rooted racism first to get rid of their discrimination completely.

How to Quit Smoking

In this modern era, our lifestyle has been changed over years. The world is now moving toward a very advanced and busy lifestyle. This has significantly brought a lot of changes in our human lives due to the stressful life. People nowadays, adapting to new habit so they could cope up with their stress and one of the main bad habit adapted by them is smoking. Although they know they smoking is injurious to their health, they just do not willing to give up the habit. There are a few ways for the smokers to quit their smoking habit so they can live up a healthy and happy lifestyle.Firstly, the smokers must be determined not to smoke more than limited sticks per day as a beginning towards their quit process. The smokers must not buy extra cigarette for themselves so they could smoke whenever they need to. Smokers also should not let themselves to smoke continuously over a time period because it may pursue them to continue the habit. As for the beginning the smokers should lessen the amou nt of stick they smoking day by day so they can get rid of the habit slowly and gently.Secondly, the smokers must replace the smoking habit with some other good habits so they could be able to control themselves when they getting the sensation to smoke. Habits such as chewing the chewing gum may help the smokers to forget about smoking over time. They may drink as much as water as they could so they wonaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have the feeling to smoke after or before eating. Fresh juices have the properties of overcoming the sensation on nicotine so they may drink a lot of fresh juice to get rid of the smoking sensation. Thirdly, the smokers may try to involve themselves in more outdoor activities to stay active.They can start up jogging as it is a good exercise for the lungs capacity and durability. They can join any kind of sports clubs so they can fill up their free hours with useful activities. The smokers can enjoy their weekend with their family with any outdoor activities such as va cation so they could spend their quality time with their family. As all of us aware, smoking is not a good habit to be continued and adapted by any of us human being due to its nature of destructing the consumers. So throw the habit away and lead a happy life with your loved ones because the life we have now is a gift from the god for us to enjoy and being happy.

Computer Science Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Computer Science Questions - Essay Example Wilson argues that in order to determine the threat scale during computer forensic tactics preparation, one identifies the rate of spread of the malicious program (worm, virus). The other step involves determining the extent to which the malicious program has spread to other computer users and the damage that the program has inflicted on those users that have been affected (Wilson, 2002). I think that subnets are the most difficult part of IP addressing. This is because it is very hard to understand how to work with prefix length and subnet length. In addition, the determination of the host addresses and the prefix involves changing the address into binary by conducting logical (NOR and AND) operations on the subnet mask and address, before finally converting the figures into decimal points. According to White, IPv6 have a number of drawbacks such as the cost. In order to migrate to IPv6 protocols, businesses have to factor in time spent, additional personnel and monetary assets. A business has to buy new servers and basically new equipment for performing IPv6 functions that are very specific (White, 2012). Another factor is the complication of shifting to IPv6. The move entails involving all departments, which means that the day to day operations will be curtailed. In addition, all the departments have to be satisfied. Other factors include getting rid of the IPv4 inventory and handling issues relating to the legacy system. According to Mason et al., the factors to consider when deciding whether to implement a traditional zone or an integrated (AD) DNS zone include- the type of zones, database replication topologies and administrative supervision available (Mason, 2012). Halwagi argues that the main factors to consider when deciding which particular DCs host DNS include- hardware requirements, the place you will place DNS servers for traffic loads on the network, number of DNS servers and if you will exclusively use all DNS servers or a

Greenhouse Office Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Greenhouse Office - Assignment Example The parallel and series connections have to be checked. It was stated that the batteries were fully charged but now the SG is low. The back-up generator should do the charging in this particular case because the PV array may not be able to give the required electricity generation. The solar array should also be checked for possible defects. An inspection on the conduit and wiring associated with the array and the two regulators should be done, finding some possible breaks or deterioration on exposed conduit and wiring. If there are leaks or open wires, conduit and wiring should immediately be replaced or repaired if possible. Suppose however, that we can't find fault in the PV array and the wiring and conduit are all in normal and good condition. What do we do That fuses blow up is probably because of the overload, meaning it can not give the necessary power to its load, the appliances and lighting in the house. A point from the generator and the array towards the battery charger and the regulators should be checked. There must be some leak here that prevents the battery bank from charging. As we can see in our diagram, the energy generating phase goes to the energy storage phase or equipment composed of the batteries, their housing and any protection equipment. The systems should use batteries which are designed for deep cycling applications and which are better suited to the charging and discharging regime typical of RAPS systems. There are two regulators each fed by half of the PV array. Can we point to the regulator as the possible 'culprit' Or, possibly it can be one of the 'culprits', meaning we have here one or two faults or defects. A regulator is an electronic device which controls the voltage of the solar array's energy output to charge the battery bank appropriately. An inspection is necessary on the functioning of the regulator to ensure that indicators or meters are correctly operating for the various regulator modes. When the batteries are fully charged, the regulator should be in the float mode. The regulators are connected to the battery charging equipment so that over voltage is not delivered to the battery. But the low SG in the batteries indicates that the charging equipment does not deliver the required power to be charged to the battery bank. The batteries can not work or can not have power without the charger, so this has to be in good working condition all the time. An old battery charger can cause trouble such as brownouts if it fails to charge the batteries which in turn supply the inverter. The components in the circuit of the charging equipment also consist of heat-sinks. Overheating in the heat-sinks and components should be checked. There could be some damage in the charger. The battery charger's performance worsened during bad weather where leaks and open wires could expose the system to short circuit and malfunctioning. Another trouble could be pinpointed at the wiring connection between the regulator and the charger, but a thorough checking revealed that there was no leak, neither was there open wire, nor

Financial reporting analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Financial reporting analysis - Essay Example Under this ratio, a business’s efficiency to use its material and labour is analysed with the residue of the revenue and the costs reflecting the gross profit. Net Profit Margin: This ratio is almost similar to the Gross Profit ratio with a further extension of scrutinising the administration and other selling costs – resulting in the net profit for an organisation. The ratio displays the net profit of a company as a percentage of its revenue. Return on Capital Employed: This is an important measure of evaluating a company’s profitability. It measures the efficiency of a firm towards utilising the funds invested in it (Fridson & Alvarez, 2002). Liquidity Ratios evaluate a company’s ability to pay off its debts as soon as they fall due. These ratios are used to analyse a company’s ability to continue its operation in the long run. Bankruptcy is one major issue that is highlighted while analysing the liquidity ratios. There are two main types of liquidity ratios: Current Ratio: This ratio assesses a company’s ability to pay off its short term liabilities with its current assets. Usually the benchmark is to have twice the amount of current assets as compared to the current liabilities but this varies within different industries. Quick Ratio: Quick ratio analyses a company’s ability to pay off its current liabilities with its most liquid assets i.e. excluding costs – which takes time to convert into cash. The usual standard is to keep a 1:1 ratio (Helfert, 1997). The Gearing or the leverage ratios give an insight to the risk faced by an investor within a company. This risk is usually affiliated with the financing of the company whereby a firm which is highly financed via debt is considered to be a risky venture for potential investors. Since both Essakane plc and Westwood plc are not hugely affected with any major debt financing issues, the gearing ratios for the company may not be analysed. Market value ratios

There has been much written about september 11 and many visual Essay

There has been much written about september 11 and many visual accounts of the events of that day. these articles present a diff - Essay Example As such, it is the hope of this author that the reader can come to a more informed and broad understanding with regards to the way in which individual integration of understanding concerning the events of September 11th is channeled into society via the viewpoints within these specific articles. The first article, â€Å"September 11th, 2001: Picturing Time† focuses upon the way in which photographers of the events were impacted by what they saw, the ways in which others were impacted by these images, and the response mechanisms that these custodians of history applied to the most horrific spectacle they had likely ever seen. The author focuses upon the way in which the photographers were floored by the gravity of it all; so much so that they went into something of an autopilot mode – snapping pictures without coming to a complete understanding or cognition of what was going on around them. An example of this is the fact that many of these photographers had no recollecti on of the film they had snapped until such a time as it was returned to them from the developers. In short, this particular article represents the objectivist standpoint; in that the individuals responsible for chronicling these events were merely aware of the component parts of September 11th without being aware of the overall emotional gravity they portended. Conversely, the second article, entitled, â€Å"The Call to Life†, views the events from a moral standpoint; choosing instead to focus upon the horror of the way in which the events of that day ushered in an increased need for â€Å"the great public good of civil peace†. The author goes so far as to provide the quote from an unnamed friend who states, â€Å"Now we know what government is for†. Additional inflammatory/emotional language such as â€Å"protecting the flock† and denoted the terrorists as â€Å"evildoers† helps to further the emotionally charged rhetoric that was so common as ang er reached a boiling point soon after the attacks that brought down the twin towers. Another element that is represented alongside this seeming â€Å"righteous indignation† is the element of fear that was so pervasive. This element of fear is aptly noted in the following quote: â€Å"My daughter and I found ourselves discussing the need for a family plan shouldthere be a biological or chemical attack†. Although seemingly incongruous with the time in which we live, the reality of the time in which the article was written was quite different. The final article, entitled â€Å"After the Fall†, is unique in that it does not focus upon emotion and/or objectivity alone; rather it combines these and discusses the way in which iconoclasm has come to define the twin towers and 9/11 itself. The twin towers, as the author discusses, were never much beloved in the NYC skyline; however, even if these buildings were not the most attractive in terms of their architecture, they dominated the NYC skyline and commanded attention. Yet, it took their collapse to make them truly universally appreciated. The author goes on to argue that individuals throughout the country have turned these buildings into something of a shrine and anthropomorphized them to hold almost human qualities. This is of course expected after an attack and does not surprise. In short,

Critical Evaluation for the Presentation of Research Data Essay

Critical Evaluation for the Presentation of Research Data - Essay Example The nature of a structure implies a need or needs that the structure will have to address. Man’s needs are many. Some of the more basic ones pertain to food, clothing, and shelter. Beyond the basic needs are the need for leisure, recreation, social life, and aesthetics. This is only a small fraction of some of man’s needs. At the same time, architectural design can also come in to define how each of these needs will be addressed. All families need a living room but the living room can be small, large, or very large, depending on how one would define his or her family’s needs for a living room. Further, even if all families may want a specific size of a living room. However, the same living room may be elegant, classy, or simply simple. Take for instance, a shelter or a home. How should a home be designed in a way that the shelter becomes aesthetic and responsive to the needs of a family? Aesthetics have perspectives. The family or the client’s taste can be gothic, roman, modern, conservative, classic, psychedelic or specific taste. They homeowner may be of Latin American heritage, African, European, Asian, French, Chinese, American Indian, Black American, or from another race or ethnicity. Each of the race or ethnic group may have a perspective on aesthetics that project their heritage and the homeowner may want that projected in his home. The family or client may want his home to project specific symbolisms or values. The client may want to project power, wealth, taste, values, culture, and the like. The client may be catholic-religious and may want his home to project his faith: he or she may want to adorn his house with the statues of saints or the Roman Catholic version of the cross. He or she may be a Muslim and may want to reflect his or her faith in the home in a manner that consistent with the faith of Islam. A home is designed to meet the needs of the owner. Will the homeowner be needing a prayer room? A computer room? A lib rary? Will he or she want a social room? How large will the social room be? How many people should it accommodate when space and budget are not constraints? Is there anything in the homeowner’s heritage that suggest how large the social room should be? How many bedrooms? Of course, an architect may directly ask the prospective homeowner for design information. However, what if so many houses will have to be constructed and rows of houses will have to be designed in advance or before they are sold? Further, how could architects design the homes even before the architects meet the potential homeowners? This is the case for many subdivisions wherein houses are designed without the benefit of information on specifications from buyers. On the matter of anticipating the house buyers’ preferences for houses and architectural design, an architect’s knowledge of research is useful as the basis for architectural design. II. Qualitative Research Although, thousands of book s have emerged on qualitative research, the literature usually on describe but not explicit define qualitative research. For instance, Bergman (2008, p. 12) described qualitative research to have the following characteristics and/or assumptions/perspectives: 1. How man would perceive reality or fact is a construction, especially a social construction, and a multiple reality exists. In other words, men would describe the same reality in different ways because each of them would have a specific perspective on reality.

Medical law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Medical law - Essay Example Debates surrounding the law have been noted to have come from two major perspectives, the first of which is a legal and professional perspective, and the second being humanity and ethical perspective.1 It has been said that the controversies surrounding the laws have always arisen from a perspective where people have looked at the law from a human and ethical perspective rather than from a legal and professional perspective.2 The reason much controversy is said to arise when the law is viewed from humanity and ethical perspective is that it gives way for people to judge the law mainly from how wrong and dehumanising it is to take organs from a dead person, especially when the person did not leave any living proof of consent.3 Meanwhile, there is the legal and professional perspective which also looks at the impact of a refusal to engage in the supply of human organs for transplantation on the living. For example, the right to live has been argued to apply to the living rather than the dead and so it is important that as far as there is a professional medical intervention that can save a living person rather than a dead person, that intervention must be applied4. In this paper, the writer combines both sides of the argument and critically evaluates recent changes to the law, while giving alternative responses that can help increase the supply of human organs for transplantation. The Human Tissue Act 2004 is the current set of laws regulating the supply of human tissue for transplantation in the U.K. The Human Tissue Act 2004 is generally in place to regulate the activities bordering on the removal, storage, use and disposal of human tissue5. The laws were established by the Human Tissue Authority, which currently puts emphasis on consent. By consent, reference is being made to the need for a person, whiles alive to agree that once he or she dies, there can be a supply of part of his or her tissue for issues of medical purposes prescribed under the Act.

Self-Awareness Understanding Essay Example for Free

Self-Awareness Understanding Essay The short story Jonathan Livingston Seagull says a lot about self-awareness. At the beginning of the short story in part one the seagull Jonathan Livingston Seagull is beginning to become self-aware by focusing on trying to become the perfect seagull. In his progression to be more than the average seagull, by learning to fly he is learning about self-awareness. During his practices he begins to see what he truly can do and what the Flock is missing out on. This short story tells me that going along with everyone else and not thinking for myself or about my own actions inhibits my learning to become independent and fully realize the self. By doing what he wanted to do, Jonathan found out what the Flock was missing out on. When he tried to explain the dilemma the Flock was in they ignored it and threw out this attempt at change. It was a terrible loss for the Flock, but tremendous gain for Jonathan. Being outcast from the Flock allowed him to further excel in his self-awareness capabilities. He had a clear perception of what he was. The two seagulls who lead Jonathan to a â€Å"higher place†, which had been exposed to this way of thinking, helped Jonathan on his path. This may say that in order to be fully self-aware one must accept others with that similar way of thinking. In doing so one can spread the knowledge to others who are less self-aware or not self-aware at all, like to individuals who are hindered by their chains of routine and their disability to think for themselves. This story promotes self-awareness by making the main character venture off on his escapade that is viewed as negative by the Elders. They see his methods as wrong and â€Å"un-seagull like†, whereas Jonathan sees it as how seagulls should be. The Elders’ minds are clouded and they, along with everyone else in the Flock who adheres to the Elders’ words are not self-aware. By going on this unconventional adventure to better himself, the story speaks to me that I shoul d also become more self-aware or master the ability. To me it seems as if the Jonathan could be me and the Flock is supposed to be the rest of the world, and in taking this class I am going on his journey to another world with a few select others who are on the same path (the other students in this class). I feel as if the author wants the reader to develop his or her own self-awareness by focusing on his or her own personality and behavior. Only by learning about myself and reviewing what I do can I fully develop my self-awareness. Others cannot teach it to me. They can only teach me to teach myself. I cannot simply read about being self-aware to master it. I must place myself in worldly situations and learn from each and every experience. I am separate from the environment and other individuals. When I want good, solid information, I turn to the experts. So, who am I going to turn to for information about myself? Who is the expert? I am. Does a friend, a therapist, a minister, my hero, my parents know more about me than I do? They cant. I live in my skin and mind 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 52 weeks a year, day in and day out. No one is closer to me than me! The answers are in there, perhaps all I need to solve these riddles is a useful question. In truth, I do not remember if I practice self-awareness regularly. My memory isn’t too good, so remembering this does not always go as smooth as I would think. I am however very self-aware, so I must have done it right over the past years. Thinking back on times I do remember, I can examine those experiences in which I felt certain ways and why. That train of thought can help in teaching me about me. A personal example is the time I gave a speech in Public Speaking and recorded myself talking. This was an excellent way to get to that part of me. By going back and watching that video I learned a great many things about myself that I previously had not. If we had recordings of our daily lives I think it would be easier for people to be self-aware because most of the time people do without thinking. If I had that back up it would greatly increase learning about my own self. Also, living in a country in which I was not born is a great help in understanding my individuality. It helps because I do not just flock to join crowds because I know what I am not. I think it would be a great help to go to another place and experience a different culture especially if it is far different than the original. It can quickly show how much of an individual a person is. I think that is how Jonathan Livingston Seagull developed his self-awareness so quickly. He did not fit in with the rest of his Flock even when he tried to be like them. He promised he would not go back to his previous ways of individualism, but he could not keep his promise because it was not who he was. It’s funny how people say, â€Å"How can I be someone besides myself?† Until one looks in a mirror and says, â€Å"Wait, that’s not me, is it?† To choose to be myself I have to be what I want, do what I want, and feel what I want. Following others’ ways of living causes them to become just like the person they are following. To be myself I have to make my own path and separate myself from everyone else. I must watch myself and get to know myself by observing my actions because I have not a clone to inquire about. It would be much easier, but sadly we have only ourselves to rely on in the situation that is self-awareness. Until people learn this, they are flawed and not truly who they claim to be.

Environmental Impacts By Mining Activities Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts By Mining Activities Environmental Sciences Essay Mining and its allied activities have taken big strikes during the last century contributing significant infrastructure development and raising the living standards of mankind. However, they have also brought in their wake, degeneration and degradation of natural resources, pollution, health risk and socio-ecological instabilities. Bundelkhand region, occupying almost 71818km2 in the central planes of India, is known for its rich deposits of pyrophyllite, moram, salt peter, granite, diasporas, sand, etc. Currently, there are around 325 active mining sites in Jhansi district alone. Deforestation, dust generation, water, air and noise pollution and resource depletion are common hazards associated with opencast mining widely prevalent in this region. The present paper attempts to reveal the base line environmental quality and socio-economic setting in and around such mining sites with special reference to the effects on the air, water, changes of land use pattern and occupational health effects of mine workers etc. It also attempts to provide a framework for management strategies to improve the environmental conditions in the mining sites and its adjoining environments. The geographical location of Bundelkhand regions is such that it acted as gateway between north and south India. Administratively, it covers seven district of Uttar Pradesh. Mining and exploitation of mineral resources generally have a considerable impact on the land, water, air, and biological resources as well as socio-economic setting of the local population. Its foci are the environmental issues being confronted by the surface mining industries of Jhansi.The magnitude of impact depends on the methods, scale and concentration of mining activities, and the geological and geomorphological setting (Ghose and Majee 2001). In India the national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) was formulated in 1994 to assess and compare the air pollution level for different areas (CPCB 1998). Opencast mining, widely prevalent in the Bundelkhand region, though cheaper are known to have more environmental consequences. In opencast mining a massive overburden will have to be removed for the exploitat ion of the various deposits. This will require excavators, transporters, loaders, conveyor belts etc., resulting into various environmental problems. Environmental impacts of mining operation at individual site may be local phenomena, but numerous mining sites clustered at a particular area may eventually led to environmental problems of larger magnitude. Large scale opencast mining operations in the study area disturb the land by directly removing mine wastes during excavation and concurrently dumping it in adjacent areas. Every mine, big or small, operating or new has to obtain environmental clearance from the Govt. of India (Ghose 1991). Jacko (1983) has given estimates of fugitive dust from some mining operations. Wind blown particulate matters of loose mine spoils and dust generation from crushers and excavation sites may affect ambient air quality in the mine and adjoin areas. Air quality status in Indian environment is dominated by suspended particulate matter (SPM) causing g reat concern to environmental planners (Ravindra 1991). Noise pollution, especially which due to blasting, might be reduced by strict adherence to noise emission standards (McClean 1992). Water resources are particularly vulnerable to degradation even if drainage is controlled and sediments pollution reduced. Rain and drainage water which may affect the plants, animals and human populations. Groundwater problems may be particularly troublesome in the semi-arid region of Bundelkhand since, water is a scarce resource and people rely groundwater is very difficult and expensive. 2 Methods Field surveys were carried out in some selected mine areas (Figure. 1) in Jhansi district to collect relevant information. Data and literature pertaining to the mineral deposits in the region was gathered from various sources. The information related to the status of health and socio-economic impacts were extracted by using structured questionnaires. The respondents include randomly selected mine workers and head of families residing in mine areas. The ambient air quality assessments were carried out in Gora Machiya granite mine area. High volume air samplers (HVS Envirotech Ltd., New Delhi) were used with an average flow rate between 1.1 1.3 m3 m-1. The air samplers were kept at a height of 6m. Sampling was done for 24 h in 8 h intervals. SPM and RSPM were computed after weighing the glass fibre filter paper (Schleicher and Schà ¼ll, Germany) before and after sampling. Analyses of water quality (APHA 2005) were done by collecting ground water from hand pumps, ponds samples from in and around mining area during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon. The hand pumps were operated 10 minutes before collecting the samples. Samples were collected in clean polythene bottles having air tight stoppers. Information pertaining to the health effects of granite mining on the mine workers and the local residents in the nearby villages were survey with the help of a structured Questionnaire. The information collected include, respiratory, eye, hearing loss, skin, accident and others. Various informal interviews with miners, mining officials, government officials, and local community members (around the source of air pollution) were conducted during the study period. 3 Result and discussion Mining in Bundelkhand region are mainly carried out by opencast extraction method. Open cast mining involves the removal of overburden including the valuable topsoil and plus the natural vegetative cover to meet the ore deposits. These activities are associated with harmful effects to the local environment. Mining activities are carried out in various stages, each of them involving specific environmental impacts. Broadly speaking, these stages are: deposit prospecting and exploration, mine development and preparation, mine exploitation, and treatment of the minerals obtained at the respective installations with the aim of obtaining marketable products.The emerging environmental hazards associated with open cast mining practices are many but the major problems may be summarized as follows: 3.1 Air Pollution Opencast mining operation creates enormous quantity of dust of various sizes which passes into transportation and disperse significant amount of suspended particulate matters (SPM) and gaseous pollutants in to the atmosphere. These pollutants not only affect the mine workers but also affect the nearby populations, agricultural crops and livestock. During the field study it has been observe that RSPM and SPM is the major source of emission from opencast granite mining in Jhansi. The minimum and maximum value of RSPM and SPM is 155 µg m-3 to 234 µg m-3; and 393 µg m-3 to 541 µg m-3 respectively. The extent of harmful affects depends largely on meteorological conditions prevailing in the region. Depending on the size suspended particulate matter may cause (a) Respiratory disorder in animals and human due to inhalation of fine particles, (b) Ophthalmic disease, as particulates act as carrier of pathogens, (c) Lower agricultural yields due to obstruction of light needed for photos ynthesis by the dust cover on surface layer of plants, and (d) Poor visibility near crusher. The variation of SPM and RSPM in the four sampling stations for the month of November to January is depicted separately in Figure 2 4. In general the SPM load in all the sampling stations was more than the RSPM concentration and this is as per expectation. 3.2 Water pollution Mining activities are known to affect both the surface and groundwater regime. The local topography and drainage pattern may considerably influence the severity of pollution. The main sources of liquid effluents in opencast mining are: (a) De-watering of mine water, (b) Spent water from dust extraction and dust suppressing system and (c) Leachate run off from waste dumps. The water composition of the mine water primarily depends upon the host rock composition as well as the mineralization process. Generally, sulfides containing minerals yield acidic mine water whereas in mineral bearing oxides, the pH of the water may go up to 8.0. pH of the mine water of the area was alkaline in nature (7.6-8.5) and conductivity varied between 372 and 1642  µS cm-1 (Table 1). The average conductivity (1,009  µS cm-1) and TDS (839 mg l-1) values for mine water are higher as compared to the groundwater (864  µS cm-1 and 669 mg l-1) and surface water (411  µS cm-1 and 303 mg l-1). Due to exces sive soil and other structural erosion the runoff water contains high amount of suspended solids. These decrease the penetration of light in water bodies receiving the runoff water affecting the survival of living organisms. The leachate water can be extremely toxic containing heavy metals depending on the overburden composition and may pollute the ground water. 3.3 Noise Pollution In open cast mining blasting is a common practice which produces high intensity of noise. Deafness is brought about by slow but progressive degeneration of neuro-sensorial cells of the inner ear. Besides, noisy working environment in the mining sites are known to result into communication impairments, task interference, sleep interference, change in personal behavior, etc. of the mine workers. In addition, noise produces other health effects, influences work performance and makes communications more difficult. Besides, the fauna in the forests and other areas surrounding the mines/industrial complexes is also effected by noise and it has generally been believed that wildlife is more sensitive to noise and vibrations than the human beings.The noise level is comparatively high in the active zones in the granite quarries due to drilling, blasting and the mine service stations. It was found to be in the range of 96 to 125 dB. These are much above the limits of 75 dB prescribed by WHO for day time industrial areas (WHO 1980). In the granite quarries the exposure for long periods to these high levels of noise is likely to affect the ear diaphragms of the workers. Instantaneous loudness from blasting can reach 100 dB and vibrations can be felt up to 2 km distant. At 10 metres, the noise from excavators, spreaders, conveyor belts and their driving stations all may attain 85-95 dB. Even at 1,000 metres noise sources of 75 dB create loudness levels as great as 49 dB (UNECE 1988). 3.4 Land degradation Opencast mining excavates large land areas to extract the mineral ore and at the same time requires huge areas to dump the mine spoils. During this course of action often lands under the cover of forest or agriculture are diverted for mining. Some important impacts on the lands due to opencast mining may be: (a) Change in topography resulting in drastic change in drainage pattern and reduction in aesthetic value, (b) Slope stability problems triggering lands slides and rapid soil erosion, (c) Rapid siltation and degradation of surface water bodies and (d) Blanketing mine spoils in the nearby agricultural and grazing lands. A change of land use pattern in Goramachiya village has been shown in figure 5. 3.5 Improper disposal of mine-wastes Dumping 0f mine wastes without proper location of will cause adverse impact on environment. This depends on the type of mineral, the method of mining and nature of topography around the mines. Actually in course of mining materials is far more than mineral of economic value, which is utilized. The rest is disposed at mine site. The rejected materials may be the overburden, inter burden, side burden, on the tailing rejected after beneficiation. This material is physically, chemically and structurally unstable and is to be dumped on the adjoining land area, add to be the deleterious impact prone to subsistence chemically as well as hydrological unstable for plant growth as it carried for with water streams and degraded environment on the land in vicinity. 3.6 Loss of Biodiversity One major crisis of the present day in Bundelkhand region is the rapid loss of biodiversity. Large scale operations of mining activities have contributed directly or indirectly to the depletion of the biological diversity in the region. Vegetative covers are open up at various places to expedite excavation of ore, development of mining infrastructure and dumping of overburdens. Removal of vegetative cover is often followed by massive soil erosion, siltation of river and reservoirs. The direct impacts on the living organisms in the mining areas may range from death of plants and animals due to mining activity or contact with toxic wastes and mine drainages, disturbance of wildlife habitat due to blasting and heavy machines. Indirect impacts may include changes in nutrient cycling, disruption of food chain and instability of ecosystem. 3.7 Occupational Human Health Problems Opencast mining is more severe an air pollution problem in comparison to underground mining. In active mining sites, miners are persistently exposed to large concentrations of dust, gaseous pollutants, high levels of noise and last but not the least accidents, which constantly pose a severe threat to miners life. The data on various health effects obtained from the current survey for the mine workers and the population inhabiting in and around the granite mining site is illustrated in Figure 6. Health problems related to skin and respiratory disorder are widely prevalent in the area. Maximum of the respondents complain problems related to skin and respiratory diseases. A total of 108 respondents have skin problems which comprises of 74 men and 35 women. The digging, blasting and drilling of granite mine generated dust particles of various sizes into the immediate atmosphere. Crystalline silica is a common but variable component of granite. Most of this dust is usually made up of sil ica (occurring as silicon dioxide SiO2). As the mining is increasing, workers exploitation is also increasing. Workers are facing serious problems of their health, livelihoods, and minimum wages. The most prevalent occupational diseases among the mine workers in Bundelkhand are: (a) Hearing problems: Effect of heavy noise from use of heavy machineries and rock blasting cause auditory effect as well as non-auditory effects in mine workers and surrounding people, (b) Auditory impact: Auditory effect of noise causes impairing of hearing, (c) Non-Auditory impacts: These type of effect cause loss of working efficiency due to the physiological disorders like hypertension, cardiovascular disease and so on, (d) respiratory problems: Mineral dust particles originating from mining activities on inhalation by lungs and thereby causing a number of concerned problems like silicosis. These diseases are common in Goramachiya and Dagara village of Jhansi. (e) Eye problem: Dust particle from mining activities contribute to cause of certain eye problem like conjunctivitis and kerato conjunctivitis and (f) Skin problem: Deposition of dust particles on skin interrupts U.V. radiation, which causes different skin diseases. 4. Remedial Measures 4.1 An environmental management plan (EMP) for sustainable mining activities India, however, is not a unique case, as it is a well known fact that most mining adversely impacts on the environment. It is mandatory to draft an environmental management plan (EMP) before commencing such projects in India. Several countries have adopted different strategies for tackling pressing environmental problems in the industry. For effective implementation of an EMP, a mid-term corrective measure is essential, such as a time bound action plan, this includes a programmed for land reclamation, afforestation, mine water treatment, surface drainage and check dams, and sewage treatment. Development has environmental costs. Therefore, the role of the law is to see how and where to absorb these costs to keep damages at a minimum. The responsibility to improve environmental management rests with the Project Officer of the project. As far as air, water, noise and soil pollution control measures are concerned; samples are collected and tested at strategic locations during all four se asons. The implementing authority is guided and advised as per the data received from the laboratories. 4.2 Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the proven management tools for integrating environmental concerns in development process and for improved decision making. As EIA and EMP have been made statutory requirements for starting new mining ventures as well as for existing mines, (at the time of renewal of mining plans) measures to prevent environmental degradation have become a subject of priority with the mine managements. In the initial years, environmental clearance was only an administrative requirement. Since 1994, EIA and environmental clearance have been made statutory for 30 categories of developmental activities in the sectors of industry, thermal power, mining, river-valley infrastructure and nuclear power. The minerals reserves in the Bundelkhand region are varied and huge in quantities, it is expected that the mining activities may be intensified in future further deteriorating the environmental quality. Proper environmental impact assessment and some times a socio-economic impact assessment should be carried out. Baseline data should be effectively incorporated in management of the mining sites in Bundelkhand region. For proposed mining projects, it is necessary to address the potential environmental impact issues that may arise due to proposed mining activities i.e. an assessment of the potential impacts of a project on the pre-mining environment. The plans required for the EIA must be at appropriate scales to show the level of detail required for the particular project or aspect described. The economic growth and development of the country depends not only on resource optimisation but also on environment management. This aspect of industrialization was not envisaged by planners in the past. 4.3 Afforestation Afforestation practices help in restoring and enhancing the vegetative cover in mine areas in various ways. For reclamation through Afforestation following inventories are the prerequisites such as area to be planted, slope gradient, quality of soil, climate conditions and nature of biotic pressure. For plantation priority must be given to native species in the following order, mining sites, overburden sites and abandoned sites. Those species have to be selected having fast growing tendency to enable to maximum canopy in short time as well as hard woody and ability to fix direct atmospheric nitrogen. 5. Conclusion Mining activities are unsustainable not only because they exploit non-renewable resources, but also because they leave behind them destruction of the environment and society, which is very often irreversible. Because of its impacts, mining is one of those activities that need to be strictly controlled at all stages, from prospection and exploitation to transportation, processing and consumption. After abandoned of mines, there is no proper closure of mines; waste dumps will be there, no rehabilitation of the area, no compensation for the labours. There will be always question of that whether land will be given back to the landholder or not. It has been suggested that after closure of mine lands should be given to the landholders, after proper rehabilitation of land. Then they can start to earn his livelihood from the cultivating their own land. Environmental quality must be sustained in areas affected by surface mining. This requires designing and developing environmentally sensitive strategies for extraction and land reclamation. It demands a more rigorous control of environmental impact assessment and more attention to ensuring productive and sustainable land restoration. Mine rejected granite waste stone materials should be distributed to the local people who are inhabitant the satellite village and also initiate for the manufacture of brick in house purposes and roads. Filter masks should be provided to the workers and plants crushers and mine areas.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation Research

Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation Research Triangulation Qualitative Analysis Triangulation is often used in qualitative methodology to increase the validity of findings, but it is not a panacea. Using British examples in the police and public sector, discuss the meaning of the term triangulation, how it can be used in qualitative research and its limitations and potential. Abstract This paper focuses on the use of triangulation within qualitative research using examples from British public sector and more specifically, police research. Qualitative research approaches have been increasingly used within public sector research. Different types of triangulation are explained and the relevance of each type is identified. The purpose of using triangulation within qualitative research; which is to increase validity, is critically discussed. Different types of validity are explained, as well as the significance of the concept of validity to research. Quantitative and qualitative research approaches are critically compared. The use of qualitative approaches within public sector research is defended, and the positivist perspective is challenged by arguing that the use of triangulation can strengthen the validity of qualitative research methodology. Using three examples of public sector research, some advantages and potential limitations of using triangulation within this area are identified. Several examples of police research studies that have adopted the use of triangulation as part of a qualitative approach are critically discussed with reference to different types of triangulation and their relationship to different types of validity. A synthesis of the issues that emerge from the selected police research studies in relation to triangulation is included. The paper concludes that while there are potential limitations associated with the use of triangulation within qualitative research, the cited examples of public sector and police research demonstrate that there are also several potential advantages and that triangulation can contribute to the validity of qualitative research in these domains. It is important to acknowledge that the application or the omission of different types of triangulation within a research study can correspond to its strengths and weaknesses, and there is an implication for the researcher to be knowledgeable and skilled in the use of triangulation in order to optimise its application within qualitative research. In other words, the limitations of triangulation might relate to the way that it is implemented rather than to the strategy itself. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the use of triangulation within qualitative methodology as a means of increasing the validity of findings, with reference to research examples from the police and other public sector areas. Triangulation, Validity and Qualitative Research In simple terms, triangulation refers to the examination of a situation from different perspectives, using different methods (Laws et al 2003). Triangulation is often referred to as the use of mixed methods within research, however Denzin and Lincoln (2000) developed this concept further to include four different types: data triangulation, which refers to the use of a variety of sources of data within a study; investigator triangulation which involves several researchers; theory triangulation, which uses multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of data and methodological triangulation which involves the use of multiple methods to study a single problem. Data triangulation is commonly used within qualitative research as it facilitates understanding of the complexity of a poorly understood phenomenon, an example being the combination of holding in- depth discussions with participants and observing their behaviour within a natural setting (Polit and Beck 2004). Investigator trian gulation can help to overcome the potential problem of personal bias (Sim and Wright 2000). The advantage of using methodological triangulation is that it helps to resolve the limitations that single methods have in studying the complexity of social reality (Kendall 2005). Frequently triangulation involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods, the rationale being that the strengths of each are optimised (Flick 2006). This paper however, will focus on the use of triangulation exclusively within qualitative methodology. The purpose of using triangulation within qualitative research is to add rigour, depth, breadth, complexity and richness to the research process (Denzin and Lincoln 2003a). The use of triangulation within qualitative research is therefore, said to increase validity (Giles 2002). The term validity is often referred to as the ability of a research instrument to measure what it is intended to do (De Vaus 2002). There are however, different types of validity; internal validity, which asks whether researchers are actually measuring what they think they are; external validity which relates to the generalisability of the findings of a study to other settings; interpretive validity which is concerned with the accurate understanding and portrayal of data; theoretical validity which relates to the appropriateness of theory that emerges from the data and evaluative validity which refers to the quality of the research process, in relation to the actions of the researcher. Overall, within qualitative research; validity relates to the trustworthiness of the data, its analysis and its interpretation (Waltz et al 2005). Holloway and Wheeler (2002) however, suggest that triangulation does not always confer validity; that this is dependent on the nature of the individual research project and that only researchers who are experienced should use triangulation within qualitative research. Qualitative research approaches seek to understand the meaning of phenomena (Patton 2002a). They aim to represent the true complexities of human behaviour, gaining access to thoughts and feelings that cannot be accessed by using other methods Flanagan 2005). Quantitative research on the other hand, has been criticised for its reductionist approach towards the human experience; it has the ability to produce results which are statistically significant yet humanly insignificant. Qualitative research methods include interviews, observations and document analysis. The qualitative researcher tends to engage more with the research participants and aims to address any associated criticism of the potential for subjectivity by the application of rigorous and systematic methods of data collection and analysis. Qualitative research approaches have increasingly been used in public sector research within the UK, for example within the health care domain, where they have helped to enhance understanding of health, health behaviours and health services (Green and Thorogood 2004). There are also several examples cited within the literature, of qualitative methodology being used in police service research. (for example: Cassell and Symon 2004; Dick 2000; Dick and Jankowicz 2001; Dorn and Brown 2003; Noaks and Wincup 2004; Office for Public Management 2006). Triangulation in Public Sector Research Qualitative research methodology is often employed within the public sector because of the ‘people factor’; public sector organisations such as the police, health and social services and local councils employ large numbers of personnel (Grant and Vidler 2000), added to which these are helping organisations that provide a human service. Qualitative research is described as a naturalistic, interpretative approach that is concerned with understanding the meanings which people attach to phenomena within their social worlds (Ritchie and Lewis 2003). As stated previously, it is very much concerned with human behaviour, experiences, values and beliefs. It does however attract criticism from positivists in terms of not being valued as a scientific approach (Haslam and McGarty 2003). Positivism adopts the position that the purpose of science is to limit research activity to what can be directly observed and measured; that aspects such as feelings, attitudes and beliefs cannot be directly observed and measured and are not therefore, legitimate areas for scientific investigation (Trochim 2006). As previously stated, the implications of this are that there are huge areas within the human experience that would not warrant investigation within the quantitative paradigm. The purpose of triangulation within qualitative research is to challenge the criticism that this is not a scientific approach, by combining multiple observers, theories, methods and data sources in order to overcome the intrinsic bias that arises from single- methods, single observer and single- theory studies (Patton 2002b). There now follows an overview of three public sector research studies that have employed triangulation in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of this approach. McAdam et al (2002) used data triangulation of qualitative methodology to investigate how the principles of total quality management (TQM) are being sustained in the UK public sector by contributing to improved performance levels. The research methodologies included focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Using triangulation served to strengthen their finding which was that quality frameworks play a key role in improving organisational performance over time. A study by Atwal and Caldwell (2006) aimed to explore nurses perceptions of multidisciplinary teamwork in acute health-care. In order to do so, they adopted methodological triangulation by conducting interviews and direct observations of interactions between nurses and health-care professionals in multidisciplinary teams. The findings of this study identified three barriers that hindered teamwork: differing perceptions of teamwork; different levels of skills acquisitions to function as a team member; and the dominance of medical power that influenced interaction in teams. The combination of interview with observation in qualitative research is becoming increasingly popular (Ekstrom 2004). A study by Bryans (2004) aimed to articulate the health visiting expertise involved in recognizing and responding to client need during home visits. The researcher adopted what she describes as an innovative, multi-method approach used to articulate this expertise which involved a 20-minute simulated visit to an actress-client, a post- simulation focused interview and subsequent observation of actual home visits with 15 study participants. The researcher identified the strength of this approach as providing a blend of control and naturalism and considers that this approach could usefully be applied within multidisciplinary contexts. The researcher also acknowledged the limitations of the approach as arising from the variability of naturally-occurring, observational data which meant that simulation and observational data were not directly comparable in terms of content in a study of this type. Comparability of observational and simulation data, and the reliability of the observational data, were also diminished by the use of different methods of data-gathering. These studies collectively demonstrate that the use of triangulation within qualitative research can strengthen its findings; a potential limitation is that it may not be easy to make dependable comparisons between two sets of data due to differences in the ways that the data was collected. Triangulation in Police Research A review of the literature reveals that qualitative research approaches have been employed within police research involving the use of triangulation for some time. An interesting example of the use of triangulation within police research are studies that highlight discrepancies between information given about experiences of crime to the police by comparing this data obtained by other means, for example by using interviews conducted by external researchers (Bechhofer and Paterson 2000a). In other words, a more accurate picture can be gained by the use of triangulation. The same authors refer also to the use of qualitative research and multiple methodologies in order to obtain information about peoples’ perceptions about crime; for example relating to their fear of crime. This information might otherwise be inaccessible. It is possible that the use of triangulation within police research could be effective in dealing with information of a sensitive nature. Lee (2000a) makes reference to a study conducted by Norris et al in 1992 that demonstrated how the use of different methodologies can highlight the difference between perceptions held about, and the reality of, a situation. In this instance observations were made of the demeanour of police officers and citizens in situations where citizens were stopped by the police. During an encounter, blacks and whites were equally likely to present a calm and civil demeanour towards the police. There were also few differences in police demeanour and action towards the two groups. These findings did not support competing claims (i.e. derived from other sources of information) that the police are overtly hostile to blacks, or that blacks display disrespectful attitudes towards the police. Devine and Heath (1999) provide a critique of an ethnographic study conducted by Hobbs in 1988, of petty criminals and local CID detectives working in the East End of London. The ethnographic research consisted of both overt and covert participant observation of both the criminals and the police in a variety of different settings. The researcher was able therefore to gain a variety of sources of data which contributed to what is described by Devine and Heath as the ‘richness of his ethnography’ (p.8). However they also consider that the study would have benefited from investigator triangulation in order to overcome the problem of bias. They felt that this would have led to a more accurate picture of malpractice within the Metropolitan CID. An identified limitation of participant observation is that the researcher can become biased in favour of the group or indeed against them (Moore 2001). A study of this kind is also unlikely to have external validity; as being an ethno graphic study; it is very much informed by the uniqueness of its social and cultural context. The last two studies demonstrate the value of observation as a research method particularly as a component of triangulation. The advantages of observation are as follows: the researcher can observe interaction within a group as well as gain information from people individually via interviews, as the dynamics of a group might influence the nature of communication between its members; the researcher might gain a more objective view of a situation than a research participant who is likely to be immersed in their social world and may not as a result, identify aspects which are of interest to the researcher. Observation also enables the researcher to observe actions, which can be more meaningful in some ways than verbal communication (Weinberg 2001). The value of investigator triangulation is highlighted in a second study cited by Lee (2000b). This also looked at police- citizen interaction using multiple observers from different backgrounds. Data triangulation was also employed as the observers were asked to collect data in two forms, one on a checklist; the other as a narrative account. The two sources of data were then compared. The use of multiple observers should help to overcome the potential problem of personal bias that was said to arise from the Hobbs study. A study by Knock (2002) drew on the findings of a telephone survey of all police forces in England and Wales and interviews with key personnel in 16 police forces to gain information about the use of Sex Offender Orders (SOOs) which came into force in 1998; the aim of these being to provide an additional measure of protection to the public from sex offenders by prohibiting an offender from certain behaviours that had previously been precursors to offending. It was found that the pattern of SOO applications is not uniformly distributed across the country. The researcher commented that the low uptake of SOOs by some forces needs to be carefully interpreted. The use of triangulation allowed for the underlying reasons for low uptake to be identified. These included a general lack of understanding about the SOO process and concerns about inadequate resources for monitoring the Order; this information being gained via the interviews. Furthermore, some forces identified that other strategie s for managing sex offenders without resorting to an Order were considered to be adequate; others had negotiated voluntary agreements with offenders in order to modify their behaviour. The relevance of this study in relation to triangulation is that the ‘first level’ of presenting information could be misleading; the use of more than one methodology facilitated a deeper level of understanding about the variation in applying the SOOs. As with all qualitative research methods, there are advantages and disadvantages associated with the use of telephone interviews. It may be possible for the researcher to enter responses directly onto a computer which could increase time efficiency and accuracy of recording. Respondents might find it easier to respond to questions of a sensitive nature when they are not face- to- face with the interviewer. The disadvantages include a lower response rate than for face- to- face interviews, which reduces further when longer telephone intervie ws are required (Pocock 2000). It is also not possible to observe non- verbal aspects of communication. The use of triangulation therefore, helps to overcome the disadvantages of a single research method. The identified weaknesses of the telephone interview are all aspects which could be compensated for by the additional use of face-to- face interviews. Conversely, the strengths of the telephone interview should help to overcome the limitations of the face- to- face interview. Pain et al (2002) carried out research commissioned by the Home Office to produce a Police Research Series paper which examined homeless and school- excluded young people’s experience of crime and disorder; the rationale being that they had previously been poorly represented in consultation. The need to adopt a qualitative approach for this study was emphasised by the researchers, in order that the young people’s attitudes, experiences and understanding of crime could be explored in depth. The participants were invited to develop a range of visual materials, and observations and informal discussion were also used by the researchers. Findings included that there are negative outcomes of the vicious circle created by being labelled as either homeless or as troublemakers at school; that most of the crimes committed by the homeless young people are petty and victimless, such as begging; that the homeless feel most at risk in spaces where control can be exerted over them, su ch as within the home or in dealings with the police and as a result they actually feel safer on the streets; that crime and homelessness are two factors which are correlated; that school- excluded young people are more likely to be involved in crime, most of which is petty but some of which is serious; that school- excluded young people often feel victimised and have been bullied, some have been the victims of abuse within the home and others have been exposed to crime previously as non- offenders. The researchers highlight the benefits of participatory research approaches as enabling the young people to be involved in the process of research and strategy development, at the same time allowing their interests to be promoted. In other words, they are being empowered. The researchers also acknowledge the limitations of participatory research methods, which are not specified within this research report but which have been identified elsewhere as being time intensive; as having been criticised as involving reduced scientific rigour and that the researchers’ control over the project could be compromised (Arble and Moberg 2006). The researchers comment that the limitations of participatory methods could impact upon the effectiveness of their use as a basis for action. Triangulation involving informal discussion and observation in addition to the participatory methods therefore is a strategy which was used in this instance to overcome the potential limitations of the latter, th us increasing the validity of the research process and the interpretation and application of the data. This is a very interesting study which has revealed some powerful insights into the issues affecting an otherwise disenfranchised group, drawing upon their unique perspectives. Some of the findings are surprising and challenge widely held assumptions and negative perceptions held about homeless young people; that are reflected in the lack of resources, support and appropriate accommodation available for this group (Dean 2006). The impact of such a study could be therefore, to contribute towards improved service delivery for homeless and school- excluded young people. It could be argued that triangulation is a powerful strategy that adds credibility to a study of this kind, which in turn could have an impact on improving the lives of otherwise disempowered and misunderstood groups of young people. In summary, there are several examples within the literature of qualitative approaches adopted within police research which employ triangulation. A synthesis of the issues relating to the use of triangulation in this specific area of work is as follows: triangulation can help to address sensitive issues within police research that might not be effectively dealt with using a single method; triangulation can highlight discrepancies between data obtained as a result of using different sources and methods, which could also be interpreted as a limitation of triangulation, in that it could lead to data from different sources not being directly comparable; it enables the subjective perceptions of participants (and therefore those who may be affected by the outcomes of research studies) to be taken into consideration, in addition to the more objective observations of researchers, this allows for participants to be empowered and to potentially have some influence over the development of strat egy which results from the research process; triangulation potentially allows for the use of multiple researchers, multiple settings, multiple sources and multiple methods to be used within police research; the use of multiple methods enables the strengths to overcome the limitations of each method; triangulation facilitates different levels of research investigation to be carried out, for example underlying reasons for the findings emerging from the use of one method can be identified by the use of an alternative approach, thereby contributing to the depth, breadth, complexity and richness of the research process (Denzin and Lincoln 2003b) and triangulation could add to the credibility of a research study which in turn could impact upon changes being made to improve service provision. Conclusion Robson (2002) agrees with the statement within the question; i.e. that triangulation is not a panacea. It can be problematic, for example when two data sources are inconsistent or conflicting. Further investigation might lead to an even more complex set of understandings. Kirby (2000) agrees that while triangulation is used to overcome the problems associated with using one research method, it does not eliminate these problems, but disguises them by compensating for the weaknesses of one method with the strengths of another. Triangulation is not a unified overall methodology; it is a way of using complementary methods. Coleman and Briggs (2002) argue that while triangulation contributes to validity, it is not a panacea and that its value can be overestimated. Bechhofer and Paterson (2000b) suggest that there are weak and strong forms of triangulation. They describe a weak form as making multiple observations of a situation using the same method and a strong form as making several obs ervations using different methods. Despite these identified limitations of triangulation, examples cited within this paper from public sector and specifically, police research indicate that there are several potential ways in which it can contribute to the validity of the qualitative research process. The advantage of using qualitative methods within public sector and police research has been identified here as enabling the human experience to be valued and investigated. Potential limitations of qualitative research methods can be overcome by the use of triangulation as the strengths of each individual method can compensate for the weaknesses of others. Finally it is important to acknowledge that the appropriate skills of the researcher can contribute towards the quality of a mixed- methods study and that it might be necessary to involve two or more researchers who have complementary research skills in order to optimise the benefits of using triangulation within qualitative research (Tashakkori and Teddlie 2003). References Arble B and Moberg D. Participatory Research in Development of Public health Interventions. Population Health Institute. 2006. p. 3. Atwal A and Caldwell K. Nurses perceptions of multidisciplinary team work in acute health-care. International Journal of Nursing Practice. 12(6) 2006 pp.359-365 Bechhofer F and Paterson L. Principles of Research Design in the Social Sciences. Routledge. 2000. p. 58. Bryans A. Examining health visiting expertise: combining simulation, interview and observation. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 47(6) 2004 pp.623-630, Cassell C and Symon G. Essential Guide to Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research. Sage Publications. 2004. p. 316. Coleman and Briggs. Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management. Sage publications. 2002. p. 70. Dean H. Social Policy. Polity Press. 2006. p. 99 Denzin N and Lincoln Y. Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications. 2000. p. 391. Denzin N and Lincoln Y Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 8. De Vaus D. Surveys in Social Research. Routledge. 2002. p. 53. Devine F and Heath S. Sociological Research methods in Context. Macmillan. 1999. p. 8. Dick, P. The social construction of meaning of acute stressors: a qualitative study of the personal accounts of police officers using a stress counselling service, Work Stress, 14 (3) 2000. pp.226-244. Dick P. and Jankowicz D social constructionist account of police culture and its influence on the representation and progression of female officers: A repertory grid analysis in a UK police force. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 24 (2) 2001. pp. 181-199. Dorn L and Brown B, Making sense of invulnerability at work: a qualitative study of police drivers. Safety Science, 41(10) 2003 pp.837-859. Ekstrom K. Elusive Consumption. Berg Publishers. 2004. p. 57. Flanagan C. Research Methods for AQA A Psychology. Nelson Thornes. 2005. p. 46. Flick U An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Sage Publications. 2006. p. 33 Giles D Advanced Research Methods in Psychology. Routledge. 2002. pp. 220-1 Grant S and Vidler C. Economics in Context. Harcourt Heinemann. 2000. p. 64. Green and Thorogood. Qualitative Methods for Health Research. Sage Publications. 2004. p. 4. Haslam S and McGarty C. Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 389. Holloway I and Wheeler S. Qualitative Research in Nursing. Blackwell publishing. 2002. p. 2. Kendall D. Sociology In Our Times. Thomson Wadsworth. 2007. p. 67. Kirby M. Sociology in Perspective. Harcourt Heinemann. 2000. p. 9. Knock K. The Police Perspective on Sex offender Orders: A preliminary view of policy and practice. Policing and Reducing Crime Unit: Police Research Unit. 2002. Laws S , Harper C and Marcus R. Research for Development: A Practical Guide. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 280. Lee R. Unobtrusive Methods in Social research. Open University Press. 2000. p. 37, 48 McAdam R, Reid R and Saulters R Sustaining quality in the UK public sector: Quality measurement frameworks. International Journal of Quality Reliability Management. 19(5). 2002. pp. 581 – 595 Moore S. Sociology Alive!Nelson Thornes. 2001. p. 34 Noaks L and Wincup E. Criminological Research: Understanding Qualitative Methods. Sage Publications. 2004. p. 101. Office for Public Management. Metropolitan Police Authority and the Metropolitan Police Service. Safer London Panel. Communication Matters. OPM. 2006. Pain R, Francis P, Fuller I, O’Brien K and Williams S. ‘Hard- to- Reach’ Young People and Community Safety: a model for participatory research and consultation. Police research Series paper 152. Home Office 2002. Patton M. Qualitative Research Evaluation Methods. Sage Publications. 2002. pp. 1, 555. Pocock R. Market Research in Health and Social Care. Routledge. 2000. p. 100. Polit D and Beck C. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. 2004. p. 36. Ritchie J and Lewis J. Qualitative Research Practice: a guide for social science students and researchers. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 3. Robson C. Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner-Researchers. Blackwell publishing. 2002. p.483. Sim J and Wright C Research in Health Care: Concepts, Designs and Methods. Nelson Thornes 2000. p. 137. Tashakkori A and Teddlie C. Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social Behavioural Research. Sage Publications. 2003. p. 553. Trochim W. Positivism Post-Positivism. Research methods Knowledge Base. Web Centre for Social research Methods. 2006. http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/positvsm.php. Accessed 10th March 2007. Waltz C, Strickland O and Lenz E. Measurement In Nursing And Health Research. Springer Publishing. 2005. p. 217. Weinberg D. Qualitative Research Methods. Blackwell Publishing. 2001. p. 135.

Religious Figures Who Defied Reason Through Faith: Saint Bernadette of Lourdes :: Essays Papers

Religious Figures Who Defied Reason Through Faith: Saint Bernadette of Lourdes Saint Bernadette of Lourdes is not originally one whom the people of her time would expect to become a religious figure that could see holy apparitions and guide others into miraculous experiences. Contrarily, she was born to a family that experiences hardships and a great deal of misfortunes. Her family loses their money through bad investments and kind-heartedness, three of her siblings die at birth, and her father passes away leaving the family to fend for themselves. It almost seems as if the family is "destined to relive the fate of Job".1 Like Job in the bible, they experience many trials and tribulations, but hold steadfast to their beliefs. Little did the Soubouris family know that Bernadette would become a saint loved and revered by thousands in the Catholic Church. Bernadette will become a subject of controversy to some, being tested by powers of authority in the church and community, but is able to prove herself true and sane through her unyielding faith. The apparitions that would change Bernadette’s life and cause others to question her integrity and sanity first appear to her on February of 1858. Bernadette, her sister Toinette, and a friend, Jeanne Abadie go out to find wood the grotto. Although Bernadette’s mother objects to her going out in the cold weather due to her asthma, Bernadette pleads and wins her way. While out searching for wood in the grotto, Bernadette hears a gust of wind but nothing is moving. She goes to investigate and reports seeing a "gentle light" which continues to brighten.2 Next, she sees an apparition of a girl or young lady dressed in white smiling at her. The apparition first causes Bernadette to doubt what she is seeing is real, but she soon realizes that it is. When that apparition ends, she has a feeling of happiness and continues about the task, perplexed to what she has just experienced. Bernadette later confides the secret of the apparition to Toinette, but Toinette betrays her and tells their mother of what Bernadette had witnessed. The mother is disturbed and doubtful of Bernadette’s vision, and forbids her to go back to the grotto again. The father feels the same, but also feels that the family, which is already experiencing a time of hardship, would be vulnerable to ridicule if Bernadette’s story were to get out.

Australopithecus :: Informative, Anthropology

Australopithecus There are many types of the hominid called australopithecus, which means southern apes. These were small ape-like creatures(with a height between 107cm and 152cm) that showed evidence of walking upright. It is difficult to tell whether these begins are "humans" or "apes". Many of their characteristics are split between humans and apes. The many species of australopithecus include A.(australopithecus) ramidus, A. anamenesis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, A . acthiopicus, A. robustus, and A. boisei. The oldest known and identified species of australopithecus that roamed the earth was a. ramidus who lived about 4.5 million years ago. Next came A. Anamensis, A afarensis, A africanus, A. acthiopicus, a boisei and a. robustus. Ausralopithecus boisei roamed the earth as early as 1.1 million years ago and was on earth at the sametime as homo habilis and homo erectus. Most of the australopithecus fossils that have been discovered have been found in eastern africa and have been dated between 4.5 million and 1.1 million years old. There has also been evidence that the australopithecus "man" lived in australia where fossils have also been found. The first discovery of an australopithecus fossil was made in 1924. The body of the australopithecus is smaller than humans, but biffer than chimpanzees. Also, The brain size of australopithecus is bigger than humans at about 475 cubic centimeters. This is also biffer than the chipanzees, but the brains were not developed in most areas. For example speech. The australopithecus species all had mostly the same features with a low forehead, a "bony ridge"over the eyes, a

Only Yesterday Essay

The â€Å"Roaring Twenties† as they’re called, was the period of ten years in the Untied States, which saw the biggest change in society, the boom in the economy, and later the downfall of the nation. This time in America was a time of economic prosperity for the most part; a great social revolution took place and saw the formation of a modern America. All this is the subject, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties, written by Fredrick Lewis Allen. Allen writes a very informative book of what happened throughout this great decade, but from the aspect of an ordinary individual. He writes of the social history of the 1920s, with little to mention of major politics and economics. From presidents to fashion, Allen covers it all. It’s an effective look at people in the 1920s, and what life was like. Only Yesterday begins in May 1919, and ends with a brief look at 1930 and 1931. The book begins out with a prologue more or less, in which Allen writes of a fictitious couple, the Smith’s, in the year 1919. Allen, through this prelude, tells the reader of the accomplishments up until 1919, and what is to come in the coming decade. This 14-page introduction lets reader get an idea of what is to come, within the book. It begins with a look at the wartime economy and slow down from it. The period of the so-called â€Å"Red Scare† is written in detail in this book. Allen writes of the terror during this time, from everything like Attorney-General Mitchell Palmer’s raids on radicals, labor strikes and anarchism, and the intolerance of the early 1920s. The Ku Klux Klan also played a major part in this period. The early 1920s was a great time of mass hysteria, and intolerance for anything â€Å"un-American†. In one such story Allen writes about, how a black boy is stoned to death in a lake by whites on the shore, in the summer of 1919. Even though this existed, the 1920s brought great change. The first radio broadcast was in November 2, 1920. Allen talks about the social times changing during this time as well. Everything from sports to makeup was becoming an obsession, like baseball and tennis for the guys, and bathing suits and makeup for the women. During this time new games such as Mah Jong from China and crossword puzzles, and new songs, all which captured the  American spirit, as well as many other things, which thrilled Americans. As Allen writes, â€Å"A few weeks later there was new national thrill as the news of the finding of the tomb of King Tut-Ankh-Amen, cabled all the way from Egypt, overshadowed the news of Radical trials and the K.K.K.† This new time was the social revolution for the people. Ladies began smoking and drinking in public, skirts became shorter, the use of makeup, and the quest for slenderness began. The twenties was also a time of relaxed spirituality. Many looked at society as more important than religion. Celebrities replaced religion in some cases. The younger gernartion searched for things such as passion and thrills, and were much more open with their sexuality. Charles Lindbergh and his trans-Atlantic flight threw him to stardom. Impressing others became the â€Å"thing to do†, and sexual appeal was big. Also during this time of social revolution, prohibition was in full swing, while the 18th amendment was passed, and did reduce drinking in the country, it wasn’t very effective for a number of reasons. The mob and Al Capone ran â€Å"bootlegging† of alcohol. Racketeering was introduced during this time, many people looking for the get rich quick schemes, brought them into illegal activities such as bootlegging and such. People were just discovering themselves during this time and speak-easies and social clubs became the rage. Women would openly drink and smoke to show their independence. Allen talks of the Harding Presidency and the scandals that surrounded it. The return to normalcy as it was called; he returned the presidency to the people. His scandals, which range from sneaking to secret bars in this time of prohibition, to appointing friends and family to the cabinet, and many others. Allen also writes of the Coolidge presidency and the prosperity along with it. The stock market was in a boom, and the economy pumping. The automobile industry fueled the economy and radios brought the people closer to each other. Under the Coolidge prosperity the â€Å"Big Bull Market† was formed. The stock market grew and grew. The economy grew and couldn’t be stopped, the stocks grew dangerously high, but like all good things, it came to an end. The end of an era came about in 1929 on September 3, after that prices crashed and continued to fall until October 24, when the market began to steady again. Yet, the market fell even more, after that and into 1930  the m arket would be at an all time low. Allen attributes this to a list of seven things ranging from overproduction to the psyche of the American public, all which led to the Great Depression. This is the last thing Allen writes, and he asks the question, â€Å"What was to come in the nineteen-thirties?† With the fall of the market, came the fall of individualism, as Allen writes, â€Å"As the stock prices fell so did the lengths of the dresses†Ã‚ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  These are the things, which defined the decade of the 1920s: oily scandals, non-spirituality, the â€Å"good old days†, and the revolution, which, fell just as soon as was started. The 1920s was nothing like America had seen before. It was returned to the people, people weren’t afraid to speak out, or try something new. What was to come in the 1930s? A new decade, which people needed to survive the depression rather than socialize, and it would dismantle everything, which was made in the 1920s. Only Yesterday, was a very good look at the 1920s. It effectively shows what people went through in this crazy time. This book focuses around the social history of the â€Å"ËÅ"20s, from women’s skirts to the economy of 1929. Allen balances this with the politics of the three presidents, which defined this era. The book is very easy to read, and spares the reader with his simple clear and simplistic style of writing. The book was immensely enjoying, and grabs the attention of the reader immediately. He refers back to the New York Times, on numerous occasions, which seems to be one of his primary sources. He uses many details to back up the stories in which he writes about. While he is not very specific in his writing, he incorporates a lot of information in the book. He told everything from the good, to the bad and even to the ugly, which exposed America’s true sense. Only Yesterday: a great book for anyone looking at the social history of the 1920s: where individuali sm ran wild and â€Å"normalcy† had returned.